His Wars covers military actions. This page was last edited on 17 May 2021, at 15:34. The Visigoths inflicted humiliating defeats on the Vandals and Alans, and Constantius allowed them to settle in Gallia Aquitania. [33] In his last six books, he is much more reluctant top discuss religion or to refer to pagan philosophers because under Theodosius I it was again Christianity that was officially sanctioned. [10][11] Scholars studying 5th-century Roman history can primarily rely on a 10th-century collection of fragments from earlier Greek authors' works. When Ursicinus lost his office and the favor of Constantius, Ammianus seems to have shared his downfall; but under Julian, Constantius's successor, he regained his position. Ammianus Marcellinus was a fourth-century Roman historian and his work the "Res Gestae", known in English as "The Later Roman Empire", is one of the most important historical accounts to have survived from ancient Rome. Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 330 - after 391) is the preeminent historian of the Late Roman Empire, whose extant work forms the most important narrative we possess on the Fourth Century A.D. Born of genteel extraction in a Greek-speaking part of the empire, Ammianus served in the army in campaigns ranging form Gaul to Persia before settling in Rome . He also criticized the emperors for interfering in what was originally a plain and simple religion by embroiling Christians in discussion about dogma rather than seriously trying to make them agree they caused controversy.[34]. In comparison, the central administration employed less than a thousand full-time bureaucrats during the reign of the first emperors. [190], Around 368, a provincial governor and three imperial envoys were executed on charges of, An offspring of a traditional senatorial family could typically serve as. New York: Methuen, London, AMS Press, 1974. 7, 4, etc. [86][87] A Hunnic leader Uldin raided Thrace and captured Castra Martis, but Anthemius forced him to abandon the campaign by paying off his deputies. Diocletian grouped the provinces into 12new territorial units, known as dioceses. [100] Bonifatius and Aetius would be mentioned as "the last of the Romans" by Procopius, but their rivalry was a principal characteristic of their age. In practice, they made decisions based on information received from faraway officials and official reports often gave a distorted view of individual cases. It makes a valuable contribution to the field of late antique studies and of Ammianus in particular by focusing on the literary aspects of the historian's text. Hypatia's death horrified Cyril, who, although he was her intellectual rival, held her in very high esteem, condemning the city for its violent nature. A comprehensive study which introduces the reader to the vigour and variety of the fourth century AD. Porphyry of Tyre praised their piety, an Egyptian group using the name Hermes Trismegistus promoted the adoption of allegedly Egyptian priestly traditions, and Porphyry's pupil Iamblichus completed a coherent polytheist theological system under the Egyptian pseudonym, Abammon. They are mentioned only in late Roman sources such as Ammianus Marcellinus and St Jerome, amongst whom they had a reputation for savagery. Biography; Electronic books; History; Biographies; Language eng Summary Ammianus Marcellinus, Greek by birth but writing in Latin c. AD 390, was the last great Roman historian. He does refer to Sallust and allusion to Tacitus, Livy, and Herodotus can be identified in his text. Edward Gibbon judged Ammianus "an accurate and faithful guide, who composed the history of his own times without indulging the prejudices and passions which usually affect the mind of a contemporary. [133] The regulated way of life of Egyptian priestly communities and their enthusiasm for scientific studies arrested the attention of some pagan philosophers from the 3rdcentury. Although the rules changed time to time, slaves, men less than 1.65 metres (5.4 feet), heretics and urban magistrates were excluded from military service. [19], Archaeological finds also abound, although "they remain understudied" (as Mitchell emphasizes it in 2015). Traditional imperial titulature was expanded with titles like dominus ("lord"), and Jovius or Herculius (in reference to the gods Jupiter and Hercules, respectively). Although collective ovations for dignitaries were still regularly commemorated in public places, in this period they were made mainly in honor of imperial officials instead of local leaders as it had been common in the previous centuries. [81] The Roman troops in Britain mutinied. [78], Likely the Eastern Romans' hostility to the Goths persuaded Alaric to search a new homeland in northern Italy, but Stilicho routed him at Pollentia on Easter Day 402. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. The Christians were outlawed for their alleged opposition to traditional Roman values, but they were only sporadically persecuted. In 293, Diocletian instituted a tetrarchyfour co-emperors' joint ruleby appointing two Illyrian officers Constantius Chlorus and Galerius as Caesars. . [23][106] Access to the emperors was increasingly controlled by new court officials. Ammianus Marcellinus "has a claim to be the finest Latin historian of any period", according to historian Stephen Mitchell, . [74], On TheodosiusI's death the Roman Empire was divided between his two sons: the eighteen-year-old Arcadius succeeded him in the east and the ten-year-old Honorius in the west. The early-7th-century Theophylact Simocatta is the least reliable Later Roman historian: both his chronology and topography are chaotic. Table of Contents. It highlights the administrative, fiscal and diplomatic experience. For instance, the oracle at Claros spoke about the Highest God ruling over other deities, including the Twelve Olympians, in the 3rdcentury. Christians were dismissed from imperial service and they were ordered to make sacrifices to pagan gods. While classical culture claimed that only the wealthy could live a truly civilized life, hagiographies praised uneducated ascetics who abandoned civilisation for the desert. The nearly 300bishops who assembled at the First Council of Nicaea adopted a creed emphasizing that the Son was of the same nature as the Father. After three synods condemned Donatist views, Constantine ordered the confiscation of their churches, but he stopped their persecution after his troops slaughtered a Donatist congregation in 321. [12] The pagan Zosimus, the sole prominent Later Roman historian whose full work survived, blames Christianity for the quick decline of the Roman Empire. Book 20 returns to his focus on Ursicinus, describing what Ammianus sees as his unfair dismissal and Constantius attempt to remove Julian from his post in Gaul, which resulted in the troops hailing Julian as emperor (360). They divided Armenia. They were mainly staying along the borders and their absence from Rome gave rise to the development of new imperial centers, including Nicomedia, Serdica, Thessalonica and Trier, each provided with a palace, a hippodrome and warehouses. [56] He appointed his three sons, ConstantineII, Constantius II, and Constans Caesars between 328 and 333, but none of them was promoted to Augustus during his lifetime. [138] He ordered the removal of the relics of a popular local saint Babylas from a former temple of Apollo. The pagan panegyrist Themistius praised his religious policy for encouraging competition among people of diverse religious background. Books written by Socrates of Constantinople, Sozomen and Theodoret are the principal sources of ecclesiastic life until the mid-5thcentury. The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus During the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens . Ammianus Marcellinus Ammianus Marcellinus (mns mrslns), c.330-c.400, Roman historian, b. Antioch. [139] His successor, Jovian abolished Julian's anti-Christian edicts in the autumn of 363. Gordon, Colin Douglas. The new imperial aristocracy was based on office-holding instead of inherited wealth and family connections. Only six leaves of M survive; however, the printed edition of Gelenius (G) is considered to be based on M, making it an important witness to the textual tradition of the Res Gestae. As you may notice from the title, it only covers about a quarter of the century, and it spends a lot of time on Julian. [7], Most information about military and political history have been preserved in secular historians' works. [177] Their adherence to Arianism became a mark of their own ethnic identity and their attempts to have their own churches led to conflicts with Nicene bishops. [53][54] Constantine developed a system of client states along the Danube and Rhine taking advantage of the neighboring tribes' dependence on commerce with the empire. Church hierarchy followed the patterns of state administration: the bishops of the provincial capitals, known as metropolitan bishops, became the superior of other bishops in the province. They were often chosen from among the eunuchs who were always at the emperor's mercy, and were often unpopular. domesticus in the Roman army from about 350 c.e. Non-compliant Christians were executed or forced into exile and the purge continued until Emperor Gallienus put an end to it in 260. [24] In 212, Emperor Caracalla granted full Roman citizenship to his all free subjects except for the dediticii, that is aliens who had been forced into submission or admitted to the empire. Readers trust theseries to provide authoritative texts enhanced by introductions and notes by distinguished scholars and contemporary authors, as well as up-to-datetranslations by award-winning translators. The Later Roman Empire chronicles a period of twenty-five years during Marcellinus' own lifetime, covering the reigns of Constantius, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian I, and . When writing of events familiar to them or their acquaintances, they are mostly reliable. Ammianus was at times very detailed in his descriptions of events but at other times he expressed reluctance to get caught up in what he called insignificant details, such as what one emperor said at table, or left out the reasons why the common soldiers were led before the standards for punishment.[20] This was perhaps related to his awareness that proximity to events provided on the one hand an opportunity to draw on personal observation, and to include autobiographical content while on the other he could offend powerful people by omission as well as by inclusion. Pachomius' monastic rules for his community at Tabenna set a template for further foundations, but the Cappadocian Basil of Caesarea's rules became even more popular. Constans fell victim to a conspiracy by a military commander Magnentius who was proclaimed emperor early in 350. He not only allowed them to settle in groups in Thrace and Dacia Ripensis as foederati, or allies, but also recognized their right to live under their own chieftains' rule. 390 and covering in the surviving books the years AD 353 to 378 and the emperors Constantius II, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens. [122] Emperors routinely commemorated their victories over the barbarian tribes on inscriptions and coins. Ammianus Marcellinus: The Later Roman Empire. Constantius died on his way to confront Julian and his supporters. Marcellinus, Ammianus, and John Carew Rolfe. [30] In the west, a rebel provincial governor, Postumus ruled a "Gallic Empire" from 259; in the east, Queen Zenobia established an independent Palmyrene Empire in 267. [85] Honorius was planning to assume authority in Constantinople, but Stilicho prevented his travel. [112], After the Christianization of the empire the Senatus no more rewarded deceased emperors with a divine status, but the emperors were regarded as God's representatives on Earth. [166] Anxious about church unity, Constantine summoned the bishops to the first ecumenical council to Nicaea in May 325. [143] There is evidence that pagans had taken part in citywide struggles both for and against Athanasius of Alexandria in 341 and 356. Capture a web page as it appears now for use as a trusted citation in the future. [15] Ammianus was aware that writing about contemporary, including events to which he was a witness, raised questions about impartiality. Christian authors rarely recorded evidences of the survival of paganism. His work chronicled the history of Rome from 96 to 378, although only the sections covering the period 353-378 are extant. In 405, a Gothic chieftain Radagaisus led a mixed group of people into Italy. Born in Hispania, he had rejected Arianism. Download full paper File format: .doc, available for editing. The "Fall" of the Roman Empire. Ambrose of Milan sharply attacked the Jews in his correspondence with TheodosiusI about the destruction of a Syrian synagogue by Roman soldiers. CHAUMONT 1989. At the wedding, he reportedly declared the renewal of the Roman Empire "by the might of the Goths" as his main purpose, but a year later, in 415, he was murdered by a retainer. His major work, simply titled Res Gestae Divi Augustae , appeared after 390 or 391 and consisted originally of . The Later Roman Empire (354- 378). The fourth century soldier Ammianus Marcellinus' book of Roman history provides a remarkably accurate and impartial record, giving readers a succinct understanding of the fall of the Roman Empire. [99] When Honorius died in August 423, his courtiers proclaimed one of their number John emperor, but Theodosius acknowledged Galla Placidia's six-year-old son by Constantius, Valentinian III as Honorius' lawful successor. [43] The Sassanian ruler Narseh invaded Armenia, a buffer state under Roman suzerainty, and routed Galerius in 296. He originally intended to end with the twenty-fifth, which concludes with Julians death in 363. With more than 1,700titles, Penguin Classics represents a global bookshelf of the best works throughout history and across genres and disciplines. Walter Hamilton, trans. Although seven years later Ulfilas was banned from the Gothic territory, Gothic converts continued his mission. Eusebius' Life of Constantine about the first Christian emperor is a useful collection of letters and official documents. On the other hand, his broad and balanced insight into human characters, his concern for historical truthfulness and his knowledge of military strategy may out-class Tacitus. Besides shedding light on many events from the reign of Constantius to the calamitous defeat at Adrianople - including striking portraits of emperors Julian and Valentinian - his work offers as well a compelling description of Late Roman society. He banned gladiator games and promoted the less violent chariot racing. He says as a gentleman (ingenuus) he had to get used to all the walking required of him in the military. [11] On the other hand, the Visigoths and Huns were no better than wild animals, and should be treated as such. The Later Roman Empire chronicles a period of twenty-five years during Marcellinus' own lifetime, covering the reigns of Constantius, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens, and providing eyewitness accounts of significant military events including the Battle of Strasbourg and . To redeem, copy and paste the code during the checkout process. His report describes accurately the characteristic sequence of earthquake, retreat of the sea and sudden giant wave. Their communities were divided into two groups: the ascetic Elects (who abstained from sex), and the Hearers (who lived a more ordinary life). As Valentinian was only four, Gratian became the sole ruler of their father's part of the empire. The Pope acknowledged their orthodoxy, but they were declared heretics by 90eastern bishops at a new synod. Peace was restored when Narseh acknowledged the Romans' suzerainty over Armenia and the neighboring Caucasian Iberia, and surrendered some border provinces in 299. [52], Constantine was not baptised until his last illness but Christian ethics influenced his legislation especially in cases when Christian values corroborated tendencies that had already existed in Roman law. [33], The mid-3rdcentury saw a period of cooling and drought, well documented in many regions. The Later Roman Empire chronicles a period of twenty-five years during Marcellinus' own lifetime, covering the reigns. Grant suggests that a disappointing aspect of his work is that, given that he was not a member of the inner aristocratic circle, we might expect more insight into the psyche of the Roman masses but the fact is that he feels the strongest distaste for the enormous unprivileged sections of society, who he thinks fail to rally around the State as they should.[36] Ammianuss moralizing tendency, reminiscent of Sallust suggests that he wanted people to learn from history so that past mistakes would not be repeated. The head of the large Diocese of the East bore the title of Comes Orientis, while the provinces Africa and Asia remained under the rule of proconsuls who reported directly to the emperors. As almost all provinces were split into two under Diocletian, the early-4th-century Laterculus Veronensis already listed almost 100provinces. [97][98] In response to a persecution of Persian Christians, Theodosius declared war on Persia, but a Hunnic invasion of the Balkans forced him to renew the peace with the Sassanian Empire. 395 CE, a Greek of Antioch, joined the army when still young and served under the governor Ursicinus and the emperor of the East Constantius II, and later under the emperor Julian, whom he admired and accompanied against the Alamanni and the Persians. A Roman historian chronicles Rome on the brink of collapseAmmianus Marcellinus was the last great Roman historian, and his writings rank alongside those of Livy and Tacitus. [172][173], Julian allowed the bishops who had been exiled during ConstantiusII's reign to return to their original position, allegedly because he wanted to create instability in the Christian church. of Constantius, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens, and providing eyewitness accounts of significant military events including the Battle of Strasbourg and the Goth's Revolt. Public opinion endorsed cruelty when dealing with the enemy and prisoners of war were customarily thrown to the beasts in gladiator shows. They jointly announced their retirement in May 305. The Later Roman Empire. ISBN links support NWE through referral fees. [116], Constantine removed the praetorian prefects' most military functions, although they remained responsible for recruitment and supply of armies. Located at the intersection of overland routes connecting the empire's eastern and western part, these provinces were a principal venue of military operations and recruitment. [108][109] Constantinople developed into the empire's unrivalled second capital only during the reign of TheodosiusI. [9] His brief epilogues on the characters of the emperors, an example of a certain moralizing tendency, have been called the best short characterizations in the whole of ancient history.[10] He gives excellent pictures of social and economic problems, and in his attitude to the non-Roman peoples of the empire he is far more broad-minded than writers like Livy and Tacitus. and consequently circulated to the exclusion of the . [125][126] For Roman soldiery served twenty-year terms, this army size could be maintained through the recruitment of at least 20,000 troops each year. [5][6] Orosius was the first scholar to integrate elements of classical and church history in the 420s. Dive deep into Ammianus Marcellinus with extended analysis, commentary, and discussion . [67], Unable to resist to attacks by the nomadic Huns from the east, masses of Gothsreportedly 100,000 men, women and childrengathered at the Lower Danube and sought asylum from Valens in the summer of 376. [22] As a surviving element of Roman republican traditions, Roman emperors had been in theory no more than principes senatus, or first among the senators during the first centuries of the monarchy. [168] On his death bed, Constantine received baptism from an Arian bishop, Eusebius of Nicomedia. Summary. Around 251 exorcists made up around one third of the clergy in the city of Rome. [25], The last Severan emperor, Severus Alexander was assassinated by his own troops in 235. [171] In 338 Constantius achieved the deposition of Athanasius and Marcellus at a church council in Antioch, but they approached Pope Julius I for protection. The provincial governors were no more responsible for military affairs, although they were occasionally ordered to lead a military campaign or build a fort. [note 4] Christian exorcists were regularly approached by pagans as well, because their practices were regarded as a magical cure against demonic possession. [105], Diocletian introduced the official ritual of adoratio, ordering that his subjects were to kneel before him and kiss the corner of his robe. His son-in-law Sebastianus succeeded him as supreme commander. Click here for the lowest price! Quite paradoxically, even Honorius, characterized as the "most unwarlike emperor" by historian Thomas S. Burns, was depicted as a conqueror of enemy forces on his coins. Ammianus Marcellinus: The Later Roman Empire T.D . Aetius regularly hired them to fight against the Burgundians, Visigoths and the rebellious Bagaudae of Gaul. Aspar led Eastern Roman and Italian refinforcements to Carthage, but they could not defeat the invaders. The ascetic Jerome was the spiritual instructor of a circle of wealthy Roman women, including Paula and her daughter Blaesilla. Get help and learn more about the design. 18 and 19 turn to Persia where Constantius was now fighting against Shapur II (310-379). [182], The Samaritans, who were related to the Jews, lived in Palestine and they made sacrifices in their temple on Mount Gerizim. [110] From the 380s, the emperors rarely held their court along the frontiers, and the eastern emperors mainly stayed in Constantinople, and their western co-rulers in Milan, Aquileia or Ravenna. [12], Other digressions include a detailed description of the 365 C.E. The diarchythe rule of two co-emperorsresulted in the informal division of the empire: Diocletian mostly ruled in the east (including Illyricum and Egypt), and Maximian in the west. Jovian adopted a moderate approach and only repeated bans on magical practices. He was born between 325-330 AD most likely at Antioch. After anti-Arian riots in Constantinople, Constans persuaded Constantius to convoke the bishops to a new synod in 343. The best contemporary source of information about Britain in the late fourth century is the late-imperial historian Ammianus Marcellinus. The reorganization of the army established a more flexible command structure and diminished the dependence of the frontier troops on the imperial field army in case of emergency. [8][9] A pagan Greek officer, Ammianus Marcellinus "has a claim to be the finest Latin historian of any period", according to historian Stephen Mitchell, although only fragments of his Histories survived. Later church histories, primarily destined to demonstrate the effects of divine providence on human life, seldom provide sufficient information for a deeper analysis of secular history. After their triumph, relationship between Constantine and Licinius became strained. He was a pagan and an admirer of the apostate Julian, to whose career about half the surviving books are devoted. Under the new system, civil and military hierarchies were separated. The plundering of the Eternal City shocked the Romans although the Goths quickly abandoned it. [178] Ambrose also came into conflict with Theodosius. Soldiers primarily worshipped Mithras or Jupiter Dolichenus and primarily eastern merchants frequented the temple of Serapis at Leptis Magna. The Goths nearly annihilated the East Roman army and Valens died in the battlefield on 9August 378. [23] As only top bureaucrats could afford time-consuming and costly travels, low-level provincial officials rarely made contacts with their peers in other provinces. Associations of worshippers who showed specific reverence towards one of the gods mainly existed in urban environment. Among the new dignitaries, the primicerius was first attested in 312, the praepositus in 326. The surviving eighteen books cover the period from 353 to 378. . Taking advantage of a conflict between Felix and the military commander of Roman Africa Bonifatius, Aetius staged a coup and had Felix murdered. Diocletian replaced the old system with a new hierarchy of imperial officials and made the senatorial rank available to all who held high offices in imperial administration. A Libyan priests Arius argued that Christ as God the Son was the Father's creature, while his opponents, in particular Pope Alexander I of Alexandria, maintained that the Father and the Son were identical in the Trinity. 2004 Delphi Complete Works of . His Buildings provides a list of the achievements of Justinian's building program, but archaeological evidence sometimes contradicts it. Nevertheless, his treatment of Christianity is free from prejudice and his impartiality and good judgement have been generally acknowledged. 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